On Geography and Geopolitics
This article dives into why geography still plays a major role in global politics. It builds on the ideas of two important thinkers—Alfred Thayer Mahan and Halford John Mackinder—and applies their theories to what’s happening in the world today and what might happen in the future.
Alfred Thayer Mahan’s Theory on Sea Power
In 1890, Mahan wrote a key book called The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783. He believed that strong naval power was essential for a country to become a global leader. He identified six main factors: a country’s location, physical shape, size, population, national spirit, and how its government operates. According to Mahan, controlling the seas helps a nation grow richer through trade and stronger by using naval forces to block or defeat enemies. His thinking inspired naval build-ups in countries like the United States, Germany, and Japan, changing the balance of power in the world.
Looking Back: How Mahan’s Ideas Played Out
Mahan’s ideas were clearly seen in the way Britain ruled the seas in the 1800s. The Royal Navy kept trade routes safe, helping Britain build its empire. Later, after World War II, the U.S. Navy became dominant around the world, helping the U.S. become a global superpower—just as Mahan had described. A good example is how the U.S. used its navy in the Pacific during World War II to secure victory and control.
Why It Still Matters Today
Today, Mahan’s theory still rings true. Take the South China Sea, for example—one of the world’s busiest shipping lanes. In 2023, it carried nearly 37% of all global oil and gas shipments by sea, including 43% of oil shipments and 34% of liquefied natural gas (LNG), based on U.S. government data. China’s efforts to build artificial islands and boost its military presence there, along with the U.S. pushing its “Pivot to Asia” strategy, show that controlling the seas is still crucial in modern geopolitics—just like Mahan said over a century ago.
Halford John Mackinder’s Heartland Theory
In 1904, Halford Mackinder introduced the Heartland Theory in a paper called The Geographical Pivot of History. He argued that whoever controls the central part of Eurasia—what he called the “Heartland”—could eventually control the entire world. Mackinder described the “World-Island” as the combined landmass of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and said the Heartland was its centre—rich in natural resources and perfectly located to dominate surrounding regions.
He summed it up with a famous quote:
“Who rules Eastern Europe commands the Heartland; who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island; who rules the World-Island commands the world.”
This idea became one of the foundations of modern geopolitical thinking.
How It Played Out in History
Mackinder’s theory came to life during the World Wars. For example, Nazi Germany’s push into Eastern Europe was partly about trying to control the Heartland. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union’s hold over a huge chunk of the Heartland made it a powerful rival to the sea-based powers like the U.S. and its NATO allies. The U.S. strategy of “containment” was in many ways a reaction to this Heartland influence—just like Mackinder had warned.
Why It Still Matters Today
Even now, Mackinder’s theory is very relevant. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and its growing influence in Central Asia show how it’s using its Heartland location to gain power—especially in energy and geopolitics. The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), which includes Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia, and Kyrgyzstan, is working towards deeper economic integration by 2025. They plan to create a shared financial market, making it easier to trade banking and insurance services across borders. They’re also setting up a common energy market with free pricing and digital trading systems.
Meanwhile, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)—launched in 2013—has already connected over 150 countries and poured more than $1 trillion into infrastructure across Eurasia. This huge project matches Mackinder’s vision by strengthening land-based routes across the Heartland and beyond, building a new kind of influence over the World-Island.
How Geography Still Shapes Today’s Global Politics
China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
In 2013, Chinese President Xi Jinping launched the Belt and Road Initiative—a massive global plan to build roads, railways, ports, and other infrastructure across Asia, Europe, and Africa. So far, over 150 countries have joined, and the total investment has passed $1 trillion. This project blends two major old-school ideas: Mahan’s focus on sea power and Mackinder’s Heartland theory.
For example, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) includes Gwadar Port, which gives China direct access to the Indian Ocean. This allows it to skip the Malacca Strait, a narrow sea lane where most of China’s sea trade passes through—making Gwadar a smart strategic move. On land, the China-Europe Railway Express links Chinese cities to Europe, boosting trade across Eurasia and fitting perfectly with Mackinder’s idea of controlling the Heartland.
By 2025, the BRI is evolving. It’s focusing more on smaller, eco-friendly projects and building new supply chains, especially in green tech like electric vehicles and battery manufacturing. This shift reflects China’s strategic move to adapt the BRI to new global needs—like sustainable growth and tech competition.
India–China Rivalry and Indo-Pacific Power Play
Another example of geography in action is the India–China rivalry, especially in two places: along their Himalayan border and across the Indian Ocean. India’s “Act East” policy and its investments in ports like Chabahar in Iran aim to counter China’s influence at sea—this mirrors Mahan’s idea that controlling the oceans is key to power.
In the broader Indo-Pacific region, a group of countries—the Quad (U.S., India, Japan, and Australia)—has teamed up to push back against China’s growing presence. This shows how both land and sea power are still at the heart of modern strategy.
Also, take the race for rare earth minerals—which are essential for tech like smartphones and electric cars. China dominates this sector because it has many of these resources within its borders. That gives it a huge advantage in global supply chains—exactly the kind of resource-based power Mackinder talked about.
Technology Doesn’t Erase Geography
Even in a world full of high-tech weapons and satellites, geography still matters. For instance, melting Arctic ice is opening up new sea routes, and countries like Russia and Canada are racing to control them. Meanwhile, the Middle East stays important because of its oil and crucial chokepoints like the Strait of Hormuz, which is key to the world’s energy supply.
Yes, technologies like hypersonic missiles are changing how power can be projected. But to launch those missiles or move goods around the world, you still need to control physical locations—whether it’s islands, ports, or supply chains. So in the end, geography continues to shape how nations compete for power.
What the Future Might Look Like in Global Politics
Several big trends will shape how countries compete and cooperate in the years to come:
New Technology: Advances like hypersonic missiles and space-based tools might make traditional naval power less important. But even with high-tech weapons, countries will still need to control key locations—like missile launch sites, ports, and supply chain hubs—so geography will continue to matter.
Changing Resources: As the world moves away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energy, the focus will shift to places that have lots of rare earth minerals (used in green tech like batteries and wind turbines) or solar and wind potential. These areas could become the next big battlegrounds in global politics.
Population Growth: Big population increases—especially in Africa and parts of Asia—could lead to new centres of power, depending on how well those regions can use their natural resources and geographic advantages. Where people live, and how they’re able to use land and resources, will play a huge role in shaping the future global order.
Climate Change: As sea levels rise, some major coastal cities could face serious flooding and disruption, which might lead to political and economic instability. At the same time, melting ice in the Arctic is opening up new trade routes, which could shift the balance of global shipping and spark fresh competition over access to resources and shipping lanes.
Wrapping It Up
Geography still plays a major role in global politics, just like the old theories from Mahan and Mackinder said. Controlling important sea routes, land corridors, and key natural resources is still essential for countries to stay powerful and influential.
Today’s world shows this clearly—take China’s Belt and Road Initiative or the tensions in the South China Sea as examples. These situations prove that the old ideas still apply.
Looking ahead, new technology, climate change, and population shifts will definitely bring new challenges. But the basic rules of geography—where a country is, what resources it has, and how well it’s connected to others—will keep shaping who has power in the world.
For leaders and decision-makers, keeping geography in mind is still crucial for making smart choices in international politics and strategy.
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Rajeev Ahmed
The Editor of Geopolits.com and the Author of the book titled Bengal Nexus
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